\documentclass{article}
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\newtheorem{definition}{Definition}
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\newcommand{\E}{\mathbb{E}}          % Expectation
\newcommand{\R}{\mathbb{R}}          % Real numbers
\newcommand{\pd}[2]{\frac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}}  % Partial derivative

\begin{document}

\section{A Simple Consumer Problem}

\subsection{Environment}

Consider a consumer who lives for two periods, $t \in \{1, 2\}$. The consumer has preferences over consumption $c_t$ represented by the utility function:
%
\begin{equation}
    U(c_1, c_2) = u(c_1) + \beta u(c_2)
\end{equation}
%
where $\beta \in (0,1)$ is the discount factor and $u(\cdot)$ is strictly increasing and strictly concave.

\subsection{Constraints}

The consumer earns income $y_1$ in period 1 and $y_2$ in period 2. She can save at gross interest rate $R = 1 + r$. The budget constraints are:
%
\begin{align}
    c_1 + s &= y_1 \label{eq:bc1}\\
    c_2 &= y_2 + Rs \label{eq:bc2}
\end{align}
%
where $s$ denotes savings. Combining \eqref{eq:bc1} and \eqref{eq:bc2} yields the intertemporal budget constraint:
%
\begin{equation}
    c_1 + \frac{c_2}{R} = y_1 + \frac{y_2}{R} \equiv W
\end{equation}

\subsection{Optimization Problem}

The consumer solves:
%
\begin{equation}
    \max_{c_1, c_2} \quad u(c_1) + \beta u(c_2) 
    \quad \text{s.t.} \quad c_1 + \frac{c_2}{R} = W
\end{equation}

\subsection{Solution}

The Lagrangian is:
%
\begin{equation}
    \mathcal{L} = u(c_1) + \beta u(c_2) + \lambda\left(W - c_1 - \frac{c_2}{R}\right)
\end{equation}

First-order conditions:
%
\begin{align}
    \pd{\mathcal{L}}{c_1} &= u'(c_1) - \lambda = 0 \\
    \pd{\mathcal{L}}{c_2} &= \beta u'(c_2) - \frac{\lambda}{R} = 0
\end{align}

Combining these yields the \textbf{Euler equation}:
%
\begin{equation}
    \boxed{u'(c_1) = \beta R \cdot u'(c_2)}
\end{equation}

\begin{proposition}[Consumption Smoothing]
If $\beta R = 1$, then $c_1^* = c_2^*$ (perfect consumption smoothing).
\end{proposition}

\begin{proof}
When $\beta R = 1$, the Euler equation becomes $u'(c_1) = u'(c_2)$. Since $u$ is strictly concave, $u'$ is strictly decreasing, which implies $c_1 = c_2$.
\end{proof}

%====================================
\section{A Firm's Dynamic Problem}
%====================================

Consider a firm that maximizes the present value of profits:
%
\begin{equation}
    \max_{\{k_{t+1}, n_t\}_{t=0}^{\infty}} \sum_{t=0}^{\infty} \beta^t \left[ F(k_t, n_t) - w_t n_t - I_t \right]
\end{equation}
%
subject to the capital accumulation equation:
%
\begin{equation}
    k_{t+1} = (1 - \delta) k_t + I_t
\end{equation}

The Bellman equation is:
%
\begin{equation}
    V(k) = \max_{k', n} \left\{ F(k, n) - wn - k' + (1-\delta)k + \beta V(k') \right\}
\end{equation}

\end{document}

% Essential packages for economics papers
\usepackage{amsmath}    % Enhanced math environments
\usepackage{amssymb}    % Mathematical symbols
\usepackage{amsthm}     % Theorem environments
\usepackage{mathtools}  % Extensions to amsmath
\usepackage{bm}         % Bold math symbols
\usepackage{dsfont}     % \mathds for indicator functions

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